Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, ISSN - 0973 - 709X

Users Online : 259938

AbstractMaterial and MethodsResultsDiscussionConclusionAcknowledgementReferencesDOI and Others
Article in PDF How to Cite Citation Manager Readers' Comments (0) Audio Visual Article Statistics Link to PUBMED Print this Article Send to a Friend
Advertisers Access Statistics Resources

Dr Mohan Z Mani

"Thank you very much for having published my article in record time.I would like to compliment you and your entire staff for your promptness, courtesy, and willingness to be customer friendly, which is quite unusual.I was given your reference by a colleague in pathology,and was able to directly phone your editorial office for clarifications.I would particularly like to thank the publication managers and the Assistant Editor who were following up my article. I would also like to thank you for adjusting the money I paid initially into payment for my modified article,and refunding the balance.
I wish all success to your journal and look forward to sending you any suitable similar article in future"



Dr Mohan Z Mani,
Professor & Head,
Department of Dermatolgy,
Believers Church Medical College,
Thiruvalla, Kerala
On Sep 2018




Prof. Somashekhar Nimbalkar

"Over the last few years, we have published our research regularly in Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. Having published in more than 20 high impact journals over the last five years including several high impact ones and reviewing articles for even more journals across my fields of interest, we value our published work in JCDR for their high standards in publishing scientific articles. The ease of submission, the rapid reviews in under a month, the high quality of their reviewers and keen attention to the final process of proofs and publication, ensure that there are no mistakes in the final article. We have been asked clarifications on several occasions and have been happy to provide them and it exemplifies the commitment to quality of the team at JCDR."



Prof. Somashekhar Nimbalkar
Head, Department of Pediatrics, Pramukhswami Medical College, Karamsad
Chairman, Research Group, Charutar Arogya Mandal, Karamsad
National Joint Coordinator - Advanced IAP NNF NRP Program
Ex-Member, Governing Body, National Neonatology Forum, New Delhi
Ex-President - National Neonatology Forum Gujarat State Chapter
Department of Pediatrics, Pramukhswami Medical College, Karamsad, Anand, Gujarat.
On Sep 2018




Dr. Kalyani R

"Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research is at present a well-known Indian originated scientific journal which started with a humble beginning. I have been associated with this journal since many years. I appreciate the Editor, Dr. Hemant Jain, for his constant effort in bringing up this journal to the present status right from the scratch. The journal is multidisciplinary. It encourages in publishing the scientific articles from postgraduates and also the beginners who start their career. At the same time the journal also caters for the high quality articles from specialty and super-specialty researchers. Hence it provides a platform for the scientist and researchers to publish. The other aspect of it is, the readers get the information regarding the most recent developments in science which can be used for teaching, research, treating patients and to some extent take preventive measures against certain diseases. The journal is contributing immensely to the society at national and international level."



Dr Kalyani R
Professor and Head
Department of Pathology
Sri Devaraj Urs Medical College
Sri Devaraj Urs Academy of Higher Education and Research , Kolar, Karnataka
On Sep 2018




Dr. Saumya Navit

"As a peer-reviewed journal, the Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research provides an opportunity to researchers, scientists and budding professionals to explore the developments in the field of medicine and dentistry and their varied specialities, thus extending our view on biological diversities of living species in relation to medicine.
‘Knowledge is treasure of a wise man.’ The free access of this journal provides an immense scope of learning for the both the old and the young in field of medicine and dentistry as well. The multidisciplinary nature of the journal makes it a better platform to absorb all that is being researched and developed. The publication process is systematic and professional. Online submission, publication and peer reviewing makes it a user-friendly journal.
As an experienced dentist and an academician, I proudly recommend this journal to the dental fraternity as a good quality open access platform for rapid communication of their cutting-edge research progress and discovery.
I wish JCDR a great success and I hope that journal will soar higher with the passing time."



Dr Saumya Navit
Professor and Head
Department of Pediatric Dentistry
Saraswati Dental College
Lucknow
On Sep 2018




Dr. Arunava Biswas

"My sincere attachment with JCDR as an author as well as reviewer is a learning experience . Their systematic approach in publication of article in various categories is really praiseworthy.
Their prompt and timely response to review's query and the manner in which they have set the reviewing process helps in extracting the best possible scientific writings for publication.
It's a honour and pride to be a part of the JCDR team. My very best wishes to JCDR and hope it will sparkle up above the sky as a high indexed journal in near future."



Dr. Arunava Biswas
MD, DM (Clinical Pharmacology)
Assistant Professor
Department of Pharmacology
Calcutta National Medical College & Hospital , Kolkata




Dr. C.S. Ramesh Babu
" Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR) is a multi-specialty medical and dental journal publishing high quality research articles in almost all branches of medicine. The quality of printing of figures and tables is excellent and comparable to any International journal. An added advantage is nominal publication charges and monthly issue of the journal and more chances of an article being accepted for publication. Moreover being a multi-specialty journal an article concerning a particular specialty has a wider reach of readers of other related specialties also. As an author and reviewer for several years I find this Journal most suitable and highly recommend this Journal."
Best regards,
C.S. Ramesh Babu,
Associate Professor of Anatomy,
Muzaffarnagar Medical College,
Muzaffarnagar.
On Aug 2018




Dr. Arundhathi. S
"Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR) is a reputed peer reviewed journal and is constantly involved in publishing high quality research articles related to medicine. Its been a great pleasure to be associated with this esteemed journal as a reviewer and as an author for a couple of years. The editorial board consists of many dedicated and reputed experts as its members and they are doing an appreciable work in guiding budding researchers. JCDR is doing a commendable job in scientific research by promoting excellent quality research & review articles and case reports & series. The reviewers provide appropriate suggestions that improve the quality of articles. I strongly recommend my fraternity to encourage JCDR by contributing their valuable research work in this widely accepted, user friendly journal. I hope my collaboration with JCDR will continue for a long time".



Dr. Arundhathi. S
MBBS, MD (Pathology),
Sanjay Gandhi institute of trauma and orthopedics,
Bengaluru.
On Aug 2018




Dr. Mamta Gupta,
"It gives me great pleasure to be associated with JCDR, since last 2-3 years. Since then I have authored, co-authored and reviewed about 25 articles in JCDR. I thank JCDR for giving me an opportunity to improve my own skills as an author and a reviewer.
It 's a multispecialty journal, publishing high quality articles. It gives a platform to the authors to publish their research work which can be available for everyone across the globe to read. The best thing about JCDR is that the full articles of all medical specialties are available as pdf/html for reading free of cost or without institutional subscription, which is not there for other journals. For those who have problem in writing manuscript or do statistical work, JCDR comes for their rescue.
The journal has a monthly publication and the articles are published quite fast. In time compared to other journals. The on-line first publication is also a great advantage and facility to review one's own articles before going to print. The response to any query and permission if required, is quite fast; this is quite commendable. I have a very good experience about seeking quick permission for quoting a photograph (Fig.) from a JCDR article for my chapter authored in an E book. I never thought it would be so easy. No hassles.
Reviewing articles is no less a pain staking process and requires in depth perception, knowledge about the topic for review. It requires time and concentration, yet I enjoy doing it. The JCDR website especially for the reviewers is quite user friendly. My suggestions for improving the journal is, more strict review process, so that only high quality articles are published. I find a a good number of articles in Obst. Gynae, hence, a new journal for this specialty titled JCDR-OG can be started. May be a bimonthly or quarterly publication to begin with. Only selected articles should find a place in it.
An yearly reward for the best article authored can also incentivize the authors. Though the process of finding the best article will be not be very easy. I do not know how reviewing process can be improved. If an article is being reviewed by two reviewers, then opinion of one can be communicated to the other or the final opinion of the editor can be communicated to the reviewer if requested for. This will help one’s reviewing skills.
My best wishes to Dr. Hemant Jain and all the editorial staff of JCDR for their untiring efforts to bring out this journal. I strongly recommend medical fraternity to publish their valuable research work in this esteemed journal, JCDR".



Dr. Mamta Gupta
Consultant
(Ex HOD Obs &Gynae, Hindu Rao Hospital and associated NDMC Medical College, Delhi)
Aug 2018




Dr. Rajendra Kumar Ghritlaharey

"I wish to thank Dr. Hemant Jain, Editor-in-Chief Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR), for asking me to write up few words.
Writing is the representation of language in a textual medium i e; into the words and sentences on paper. Quality medical manuscript writing in particular, demands not only a high-quality research, but also requires accurate and concise communication of findings and conclusions, with adherence to particular journal guidelines. In medical field whether working in teaching, private, or in corporate institution, everyone wants to excel in his / her own field and get recognised by making manuscripts publication.


Authors are the souls of any journal, and deserve much respect. To publish a journal manuscripts are needed from authors. Authors have a great responsibility for producing facts of their work in terms of number and results truthfully and an individual honesty is expected from authors in this regards. Both ways its true "No authors-No manuscripts-No journals" and "No journals–No manuscripts–No authors". Reviewing a manuscript is also a very responsible and important task of any peer-reviewed journal and to be taken seriously. It needs knowledge on the subject, sincerity, honesty and determination. Although the process of reviewing a manuscript is a time consuming task butit is expected to give one's best remarks within the time frame of the journal.
Salient features of the JCDR: It is a biomedical, multidisciplinary (including all medical and dental specialities), e-journal, with wide scope and extensive author support. At the same time, a free text of manuscript is available in HTML and PDF format. There is fast growing authorship and readership with JCDR as this can be judged by the number of articles published in it i e; in Feb 2007 of its first issue, it contained 5 articles only, and now in its recent volume published in April 2011, it contained 67 manuscripts. This e-journal is fulfilling the commitments and objectives sincerely, (as stated by Editor-in-chief in his preface to first edition) i e; to encourage physicians through the internet, especially from the developing countries who witness a spectrum of disease and acquire a wealth of knowledge to publish their experiences to benefit the medical community in patients care. I also feel that many of us have work of substance, newer ideas, adequate clinical materials but poor in medical writing and hesitation to submit the work and need help. JCDR provides authors help in this regards.
Timely publication of journal: Publication of manuscripts and bringing out the issue in time is one of the positive aspects of JCDR and is possible with strong support team in terms of peer reviewers, proof reading, language check, computer operators, etc. This is one of the great reasons for authors to submit their work with JCDR. Another best part of JCDR is "Online first Publications" facilities available for the authors. This facility not only provides the prompt publications of the manuscripts but at the same time also early availability of the manuscripts for the readers.
Indexation and online availability: Indexation transforms the journal in some sense from its local ownership to the worldwide professional community and to the public.JCDR is indexed with Embase & EMbiology, Google Scholar, Index Copernicus, Chemical Abstracts Service, Journal seek Database, Indian Science Abstracts, to name few of them. Manuscriptspublished in JCDR are available on major search engines ie; google, yahoo, msn.
In the era of fast growing newer technologies, and in computer and internet friendly environment the manuscripts preparation, submission, review, revision, etc and all can be done and checked with a click from all corer of the world, at any time. Of course there is always a scope for improvement in every field and none is perfect. To progress, one needs to identify the areas of one's weakness and to strengthen them.
It is well said that "happy beginning is half done" and it fits perfectly with JCDR. It has grown considerably and I feel it has already grown up from its infancy to adolescence, achieving the status of standard online e-journal form Indian continent since its inception in Feb 2007. This had been made possible due to the efforts and the hard work put in it. The way the JCDR is improving with every new volume, with good quality original manuscripts, makes it a quality journal for readers. I must thank and congratulate Dr Hemant Jain, Editor-in-Chief JCDR and his team for their sincere efforts, dedication, and determination for making JCDR a fast growing journal.
Every one of us: authors, reviewers, editors, and publisher are responsible for enhancing the stature of the journal. I wish for a great success for JCDR."



Thanking you
With sincere regards
Dr. Rajendra Kumar Ghritlaharey, M.S., M. Ch., FAIS
Associate Professor,
Department of Paediatric Surgery, Gandhi Medical College & Associated
Kamla Nehru & Hamidia Hospitals Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh 462 001 (India)
E-mail: drrajendrak1@rediffmail.com
On May 11,2011




Dr. Shankar P.R.

"On looking back through my Gmail archives after being requested by the journal to write a short editorial about my experiences of publishing with the Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR), I came across an e-mail from Dr. Hemant Jain, Editor, in March 2007, which introduced the new electronic journal. The main features of the journal which were outlined in the e-mail were extensive author support, cash rewards, the peer review process, and other salient features of the journal.
Over a span of over four years, we (I and my colleagues) have published around 25 articles in the journal. In this editorial, I plan to briefly discuss my experiences of publishing with JCDR and the strengths of the journal and to finally address the areas for improvement.
My experiences of publishing with JCDR: Overall, my experiences of publishing withJCDR have been positive. The best point about the journal is that it responds to queries from the author. This may seem to be simple and not too much to ask for, but unfortunately, many journals in the subcontinent and from many developing countries do not respond or they respond with a long delay to the queries from the authors 1. The reasons could be many, including lack of optimal secretarial and other support. Another problem with many journals is the slowness of the review process. Editorial processing and peer review can take anywhere between a year to two years with some journals. Also, some journals do not keep the contributors informed about the progress of the review process. Due to the long review process, the articles can lose their relevance and topicality. A major benefit with JCDR is the timeliness and promptness of its response. In Dr Jain's e-mail which was sent to me in 2007, before the introduction of the Pre-publishing system, he had stated that he had received my submission and that he would get back to me within seven days and he did!
Most of the manuscripts are published within 3 to 4 months of their submission if they are found to be suitable after the review process. JCDR is published bimonthly and the accepted articles were usually published in the next issue. Recently, due to the increased volume of the submissions, the review process has become slower and it ?? Section can take from 4 to 6 months for the articles to be reviewed. The journal has an extensive author support system and it has recently introduced a paid expedited review process. The journal also mentions the average time for processing the manuscript under different submission systems - regular submission and expedited review.
Strengths of the journal: The journal has an online first facility in which the accepted manuscripts may be published on the website before being included in a regular issue of the journal. This cuts down the time between their acceptance and the publication. The journal is indexed in many databases, though not in PubMed. The editorial board should now take steps to index the journal in PubMed. The journal has a system of notifying readers through e-mail when a new issue is released. Also, the articles are available in both the HTML and the PDF formats. I especially like the new and colorful page format of the journal. Also, the access statistics of the articles are available. The prepublication and the manuscript tracking system are also helpful for the authors.
Areas for improvement: In certain cases, I felt that the peer review process of the manuscripts was not up to international standards and that it should be strengthened. Also, the number of manuscripts in an issue is high and it may be difficult for readers to go through all of them. The journal can consider tightening of the peer review process and increasing the quality standards for the acceptance of the manuscripts. I faced occasional problems with the online manuscript submission (Pre-publishing) system, which have to be addressed.
Overall, the publishing process with JCDR has been smooth, quick and relatively hassle free and I can recommend other authors to consider the journal as an outlet for their work."



Dr. P. Ravi Shankar
KIST Medical College, P.O. Box 14142, Kathmandu, Nepal.
E-mail: ravi.dr.shankar@gmail.com
On April 2011
Anuradha

Dear team JCDR, I would like to thank you for the very professional and polite service provided by everyone at JCDR. While i have been in the field of writing and editing for sometime, this has been my first attempt in publishing a scientific paper.Thank you for hand-holding me through the process.


Dr. Anuradha
E-mail: anuradha2nittur@gmail.com
On Jan 2020

Important Notice

Original article / research
Year : 2022 | Month : November | Volume : 16 | Issue : 11 | Page : LC01 - LC05 Full Version

Analysis of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in an Urban Community of Koppal, Karnataka, India: A Cross-sectional Study


Published: November 1, 2022 | DOI: https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2022/55511.16993
Smita M Nimbannavar, Vijaykumar P Mane

1. Assistant Professor, Department of Community Medicine, Koppal Institute of Medical Sciences, Koppal, Karnataka, India. 2. Assistant Professor, Department of Community Medicine, Koppal Institute of Medical Sciences, Koppal, Karnataka, India.

Correspondence Address :
Dr. Vijaykumar P Mane,
LIG-6, Santoshanagar, Kelgeri Road, Dharwad, Karnataka, India.
E-mail: vijaymane01@gmail.com

Abstract

Introduction: Water, Sanitation and Hygienic (WaSH) practices are the major predictors of morbidity, mortality as well as nutritional status and are highly cost-effective. Their adequate implementation contributes to overall improvement of the population. Many communicable diseases can be effectively managed by improving the sanitation, hygiene and water usage practices. Globally, limited access to water and low level of sanitation and hygiene practices are responsible for 90% of diarrhoea-related mortality.

Aim: To estimate the proportion of population having access to safe water, adequate sanitation and practice of hand hygiene among people at Koppal, Karnataka, India and also to determine their association with occurrence of diarrhoeal episodes.

Materials and Methods: This community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in the field practice area of Urban Health Centre (UHC), Koppal, Karnataka, India, from March 2019 to July 2019. Simple random sampling technique was used for sample selection and a total of 410 households were included in the study. Data about source, availability, accessibility, treatment methods of water, availability of toilet, details about domestic hygiene, hand hygiene practices and also history of diarrhoeal episodes among members of the household were collected through interviews using pretested and semi-structured
questionnaire. Statistical analysis was done using Epi info software version 3.5.4 {Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America}. WaSH practices were presented as percentages and Chi-square test at 5% level of significance was applied to test the association between the occurrence of diarrhoeal episodes and the various environmental factors.

Results: The primary source of drinking water in majority (314, 76.58%) of households was piped corporation water and majority (309, 75.36%) of households had individual toilets. Majority (390, 95.12%) of the respondents practiced to wash hands after using toilet followed by 349 (85.12%) respondents admitted to wash hands before taking meals. Diarrhoeal episodes among household members, were found to be significantly associated with piles of solid waste around their households.

Conclusion: The present study finds that three out of four households had access to safe water and one out of three households treated water before drinking. More than nine among ten households had access to either individual or community toilet facilities. Similarly, nine out of ten participants admitted to wash their hands after using toilet and eight washed before taking meals. Solid waste piles around households were identified as risk factors for occurrence of diarrhoea both among adults and children.

Keywords

Diarrhoea, Domestic hygiene, Hand hygiene, Solid waste

Access to safe water along with adequate sanitation and hygienic practices is essential for good health and are considered as the most basic needs for overall development (1). Inadequate Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WaSH) standards are associated with increased morbidity and mortality, particularly in low socio-economic countries (2). Diarrhoeal diseases, nearly 90% of which have been attributed to suboptimal WaSH practices, is one of the largest causes of morbidity and mortality in low and middle-income countries, especially among young children (3).

Inadequate WaSH remain critical problems in many parts of the world. Over 2 billion people lack access to water that is readily available and free from contamination, more than one third of the world’s population lacks basic sanitation such as facilities for the safe disposal of human waste and more than four fifths do not WaSH hands with soap after contact with excreta (4). Most of the developing countries in the world including India also suffer from inadequate WaSH facilities (1). National Family Health Survey (NFHS) -4 India reports that the households with an improved drinking water source and improved sanitation facility to be 89.9% and 48.4%, respectively (5). In low-income and middle-income countries, annually 829,000 people die due to inadequate WaSH conditions and of these deaths, 432,000 are caused by poor sanitation alone (6). Evidence indicates that inadequate WaSH practices can also impact growth in children negatively (2).

Appropriate WaSH practices/behaviours can reduce the burden of diarrhoeal diseases. Drinking safe water can prevent the spread of waterborne diseases; availability of plenty of clean water and soap enables and encourages people to WaSH their hands especially at critical times, thereby reducing the likelihood of disease transmission. Adequate sanitation can control flies and other arthropods that spread disease, and also prevents contamination of food or utensils (7). WaSH has the potential to prevent atleast 9.1% of the global disease burden and 6.3% of all deaths. WaSH promotion can also greatly contribute to economic development (8). Keeping this in mind, United Nations Sustainable Development Goal six envisages “Clean water and Sanitation for all” to be achieved by 2030 (9).

Till date the data on wash practices in India is scarce, that too in urban areas. Further, the present study is done in one of the most backward districts in Kalyan Karnataka region {Article 371 J-The Constitution (118th Amendment) Bill}.

With this background, the present study was undertaken and the objectives were to estimate the proportion of population having access to safe water and adequate sanitation in the study setting, to estimate the prevalence of hand hygienic practices among people in the study setting, and to determine the association between various environmental factors and diarrhoeal episodes among people in households.

Material and Methods

This community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in the field practice area of Urban Health Centre (UHC), Koppal, Karnataka, India, from March 2019 to July 2019 among selected households in the study setting. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Ethics Committee (No.KIMS – Koppal/IEC/47/2018-19 Date 27.01.2019), Koppal Institute of Medical Sciences, Koppal.

Sample size calculation: Minimum sample size calculated was 400 with an absolute precision of 5% and significance level of 0.05, taking 48% prevalence of appropriate WaSH practices from a previous study done in Karnataka (9). Simple random sampling technique was used for sample selection.

A list of households in the study setting was prepared using family folders maintained in the Department of Community Medicine and 410 households were selected by lottery method to be included as sampling units in the study.

Inclusion and Exclusion criteria: The unit of study was household and the study population consisted of all the households in the study setting. Households found locked at the time of visit were excluded from the study.

Questionnaire

A pretested and semi-structured WaSH questionnaire consisting of 26 questions, prepared by modification of the questionnaire provided by Global WaSH Cluster (10) was used for data collection, from one respondent each in selected households after taking an informed consent [Annexure-1]. The investigators who carried out the modifications in the questionnaire were qualified in the speciality of Community Medicine (MD) and had an experience of 10 years. It was formulated in English, but the data were collected by the medical undergraduate students through interviews, in the local language which is Kannada.

Data about source, availability, accessibility, treatment methods of water, taste of drinking water, availability of toilet, details about domestic hygiene, hand hygiene practices and also history of diarrhoeal episodes among members of the household were collected by the medical undergraduate students through interviews.

• Questions from 1-7 recorded the demographic details of the subjects.
• Questions 8,9,10,13 and 14 were same as original questionnaire with less options depending on local relevance.
• Questions 11 and 12 were added to get details about purification methods and taste of drinking water
• Questions from 15-18 were newly added to get details about accessibility and availability of water in the present study.
• Question 19 was derived from original questionnaire and modified to suit local context.
• Question 18-26 were newly added keeping in mind the purpose and objectives of the study after thorough review of literature.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using the Epi info software version 3.5.4 {Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America}. All the parameters related to WaSH conditions were presented as percentages and hand hygiene practices were presented in Bar graph. Diarrhoeal episodes both among children and adults were presented separately as percentages and their association with different variables was tested using Chi-square test at 5% level of significance and p-values derived.

Results

(Table/Fig 1) reveals household WaSH conditions in the present study. The primary source of drinking water in majority i.e. 314 (76.58%) of households was piped corporation water and among them, majority 143 (45.54%) received it for 2-3 days in a week. Only 147 (35.86%) of households in the present study treated water before drinking and nearly 105 (25.61%) of households had some form of purifier/filter. However, only 12 (2.93%) of respondents perceived taste of water as unacceptable in the present study. While majority i.e. 309 (75.36%) of households in the present study had Individual toilets, residents of 72 (17.56%) households used community toilets and the remaining household members practiced open air defaecation. Total 160 (39.02%) of households had stagnant/sewage water collections near house and 139 (33.90%) had solid waste piles. Solid waste was collected atleast once a week from majority i.e. 349 (85.12%) of the households as seen in the table.

(Table/Fig 2) shows hand hygiene practices among members of the household. An enquiry was made about hand washing practices among the respondents in the selected households and it was found that majority i.e. 390 (95.12%) of the respondents reported to wash hands after using toilet followed by 349 (85.12%) respondents admitting to WaSH hands before taking meals.

(Table/Fig 3) demonstrates distribution of diarrhoeal episodes among children (<5 years) in households during 4 weeks preceding the survey according to certain factors as mentioned below. Among 410 households, 172 had under five children and the occurrence of diarrhoeal episodes among them was found to be significantly associated (p-value <0.05) with piles of solid waste around their households as evident from the table.

(Table/Fig 4) demonstrates distribution of diarrhoeal episodes among adults in households during the previous 4 weeks of survey according to certain environmental factors and diarrhoeal episodes among adults in households were significantly associated (p-value <0.05) with piles of solid waste around their households in the present study.

Discussion

The key to man’s health lies largely in the surrounding environment. Much of the ill health in developing countries like India is due to poor WaSH practices. The present study was conducted in an urban community of Koppal city among 410 randomly selected households. The primary source of drinking water in majority i.e. 314 (76.58%) of households in the present study was piped Corporation water similar to the findings of other studies by Patel SK et al., using NSSO data in India, Gizaw Z and Addisu A, in Ethipia, Mittal A et al., in Tamil Nadu and Kaur S et al. in Punjab (1),(8),(11),(12). Only one third of households in the present study treated water before drinking and only one fourth had some form of purifier/filter. While only 7.6% in a study by Gizaw Z and Addisu A, in Northwest Ethiopia, none of the households treated water before use in a study by Ramya N et al., in Kolar district of Karnataka, only 21.6% in a study by Mittal A et al., in Tamil Nadu and only 31% of households in a study by Reddy BV et al., in Andhra Pradesh treated water, similar to the findings of present study (8),(9),(11),(13). Further, only 30.2% in a study by Mohd R and Malik I, in Bangalore and only 15% of households in urban slums of Delhi in a study by Joshi A et al., used filter for water purification (14),(15). On the contrary, a study done in a tribal community of Maharashtra by Jeyakumar A et al., identified well water as the main source of drinking water for majority of the households and more than two thirds of the participants treated water before use (16).

Majority i.e. 309 (75.4%) of households in the present study had individual toilets. These findings were in confirmation with Patel SK et al., where 90%, Ramya N et al., where 95%, Kaur S et al., where 85%, and Kuberan A et al., where 75% of households had Individual household toilet facilities (1),(9),(12),(17). However, in a number of studies like Anuj M et al., (70%), Reddy BV et al., (85.4%), Joshi A et al., (55%) and Chattopadhyay A et al., in Eastern India (82.1%), majority of the households relied on community toilets or practiced open air defaecation (11),(13),(15),(18). While one third of households had stagnant/sewage water collections in their premises, another one third had solid waste piles around them in the present study, in line with findings of few other studies (1),(9). However, a couple of studies found open drains in more than 80% of the households (15),(16).

Majority i.e. 390 (95.12%) of the respondents reported to WaSH hands after using toilet in the present study followed by 349 (85.12%) of respondents admitting to WaSH hands before taking meals in line with findings of studies by Mittal A et al., and Kaur S et al., where majority of the participants admitted to wash hands after defaecation followed by washing hands before taking meals (11),(12). On the contrary, a study by Ntakirutimana T et al., in Rwanda, Reddy BV et al., in Andhra Pradesh and Mohd R and Malik I in Bangalore found majority to be washing hands before taking meals followed by washing after defaecation (7),(13),(14). Occurrence of diarrhoeal episodes in the present survey among household members (both adult and children) during the previous four weeks of conducting survey, was found to be significantly associated with piles of solid waste around their households. Similarly, Jeyakumar A et al., in Maharashtra, Gali A et al., in Soloman islands and Thian S et al., in Senegal have found solid waste piles to be significantly associated with diarrhoea among children in confirmation with present study findings (16),(19),(20). Solid waste piling around the households can be a reason for diarrhoea among children.

Limitation(s)

The present study findings were based on data collected through questionnaire and there were chances of information bias. Further, the study was conducted in the field practice area of only one urban health centre and during particular season of the year, which makes generalisability of the findings difficult. But the study still sheds some light on the current WaSH conditions/practices and its role in occurrence of diarrhoeal disease in the study setting for effective planning of interventions. And also paves the way for conducting further research in larger geographical settings overcoming the limitations of the present study.

Conclusion

The WaSH conditions/practices in the present study are satisfactory, with substantial proportion of households having access to safe water and adequate sanitation facilities. There is still scope for improvement especially with respect to water treatment, use of sanitary toilets, proper disposal of solid as well as liquid waste and hand hygiene practices, which can be done by proper infrastructure improvement, economic schemes and behaviour change communication strategies. The present study also found significant association between diarrhoeal episodes among members of household and indiscriminate solid waste piles in their premises, emphasising the need for its adequate and timely disposal.

Acknowledgement

Authors acknowledge active participation of medical students in the data collection for the study.

References

1.
Patel SK, Pradhan MR, Patel S. Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) conditions and their association with selected diseases in Urban India. J Popul Soc Stud. 2020;28(2):103-15. [crossref]
2.
Melariri P, Steenkamp L, Williams M, Mtembu C, Ronaasen J, Truter I. Water, sanitation and hygiene practices in Early Childhood Development (ECD) centres in low socio-economic areas in Nelson Mandela Bay, South Africa. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev. 2019;9(1):164-71. [crossref]
3.
Ramesh A, Blanchet K, Ensink JHJ, Roberts B. Evidence on the effectiveness of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) interventions on health outcomes in humanitarian crises: A systematic review. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(9):e0124688. Doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0124688. [crossref] [PubMed]
4.
Ginja S, Gallagher S, Keenan M. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) behaviour change research: Why an analysis of contingencies of reinforcement is needed, International Journal of Environmental Health Research. 2019;31(6):715-28. Doi: 10.1080/09603123.2019.1682127. [crossref] [PubMed]
5.
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and Macro International. 2017. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), 2015–16: India: Volume I. Mumbai: IIPS.
6.
“World Health Organisation: Sanitation Key facts” Available at: https://www.who. int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sanitation Accessed on 21.04.2022.
7.
Ntakirutimana T, Tuyizere M, Ndizeye O, Sunday FX. Status of water, hygiene and sanitation practices in Southern Rwanda. Rwanda J Med Health Sci. 2020;3(1):40-48. [crossref]
8.
Gizaw Z, Addisu A. Evidence of households’ Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) performance improvement following a WASH education program in Rural Dembiya, Northwest Ethiopia. Environ. 2020;14:01-07. [crossref] [PubMed]
9.
Ramya N, Reddy MM, Kamath PBT. Water, sanitation and hygiene practices among adult women in a rural area of Kolar district, South India: A community based survey. Int J Community Med Public Health. 2020;7:2388-92. [crossref]
10.
“Core questions on Drinking water and Sanitation on Household surveys” Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43489/97892415 63260_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Accessed on 15/12/2020.
11.
Mittal A, Vedapriya DR, Thirumal P, Murali S. A cross-sectional study to determine knowledge, attitude and practice of sanitation in rural areas of Tamil Nadu, India. Int J Community Med Public Health. 2016;3:1910-14. [crossref]
12.
Kaur S, Bains K, Kaur H. Household WASH Facilities (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) and Hygiene Practices among Indian children (11-17 years). Sci Technol Arts Res J. 2016;5(2):19-28.
13.
Reddy BV, Kusuma YS, Pandav CS, Goswami AK, Krishnana A. Water and sanitation hygiene practices for under-five children among households of Sugali Tribe of Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India. J Environ Public Health. 2017;2017:7517414. Doi: 10.1155/2017/7517414. [crossref] [PubMed]
14.
Mohd R, Malik I. Sanitation and hygiene knowledge, attitude and practices in urban setting of Bangalore: A cross-sectional study. J Community Med Health Educ. 2017;7:540. Doi: 10.4172/2161-0711.1000540. [crossref]
15.
Joshi A, Prasad S, Kasav JB, Segan M, Singh AK. Water and sanitation hygiene knowledge attitude practice in urban slum settings. Glob J Health Sci. 2014;6(2):23-34. [crossref] [PubMed]
16.
Jeyakumar A, Godbharle SR, Giri BR. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) practices and diarrhoea prevalence among children under five years in a tribal setting in Palghar, Maharashtra, India. J Child Health Care. 2020;24(1):01-12.
17.
Kuberan A, Singh AK, Kasav JB, Prasad S, Surapaneni KM, Upadhyaya V, et al. Water and sanitation hygiene knowledge, attitude, and practices among household members living in rural setting of India. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2015;6(1):s69-s74. [crossref] [PubMed]
18.
“WASH practices and its association with nutritional status of adolescent girls in poverty pockets of eastern India” Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/334270818_WASH_practices_and_its_association_with_nutritional_ status_of_adolescent_girls_in_poverty_pockets_of_eastern_India. Accessed on 26.07.2021
19.
Gali A, Krishna K, Lowry J, Mohammadnezhad M. Environmental factors associated with diarrhoea prevalence among under-five children in the Mataniko settlements in Honiara, Solomon Islands. Rural and Remote Health. 2020;20:5308. https://doi.org/10.22605/RRH5308. [crossref] [PubMed]
20.
“Prevalence of diarrhoea and risk factors among children under five years old in Mbour, Senegal: A cross-sectional study” Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC5499039/pdf/40249_2017_Article_323.pdf. Accessed on 26.07.2021.

DOI and Others

DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2022/55511.16993

Date of Submission: Feb 15, 2022
Date of Peer Review: Apr 11, 2022
Date of Acceptance: Jul 19, 2022
Date of Publishing: Nov 01, 2022

AUTHOR DECLARATION:
• Financial or Other Competing Interests: None
• Was Ethics Committee Approval obtained for this study? Yes
• Was informed consent obtained from the subjects involved in the study? Yes
• For any images presented appropriate consent has been obtained from the subjects. NA

PLAGIARISM CHECKING METHODS:
• Plagiarism X-checker: Feb 17, 2022
• Manual Googling: Apr 04, 2022
• iThenticate Software: Jul 18, 2022 (11%)

ETYMOLOGY: Author Origin

JCDR is now Monthly and more widely Indexed .
  • Emerging Sources Citation Index (Web of Science, thomsonreuters)
  • Index Copernicus ICV 2017: 134.54
  • Academic Search Complete Database
  • Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)
  • Embase
  • EBSCOhost
  • Google Scholar
  • HINARI Access to Research in Health Programme
  • Indian Science Abstracts (ISA)
  • Journal seek Database
  • Google
  • Popline (reproductive health literature)
  • www.omnimedicalsearch.com