Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, ISSN - 0973 - 709X

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Dr Mohan Z Mani

"Thank you very much for having published my article in record time.I would like to compliment you and your entire staff for your promptness, courtesy, and willingness to be customer friendly, which is quite unusual.I was given your reference by a colleague in pathology,and was able to directly phone your editorial office for clarifications.I would particularly like to thank the publication managers and the Assistant Editor who were following up my article. I would also like to thank you for adjusting the money I paid initially into payment for my modified article,and refunding the balance.
I wish all success to your journal and look forward to sending you any suitable similar article in future"



Dr Mohan Z Mani,
Professor & Head,
Department of Dermatolgy,
Believers Church Medical College,
Thiruvalla, Kerala
On Sep 2018




Prof. Somashekhar Nimbalkar

"Over the last few years, we have published our research regularly in Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. Having published in more than 20 high impact journals over the last five years including several high impact ones and reviewing articles for even more journals across my fields of interest, we value our published work in JCDR for their high standards in publishing scientific articles. The ease of submission, the rapid reviews in under a month, the high quality of their reviewers and keen attention to the final process of proofs and publication, ensure that there are no mistakes in the final article. We have been asked clarifications on several occasions and have been happy to provide them and it exemplifies the commitment to quality of the team at JCDR."



Prof. Somashekhar Nimbalkar
Head, Department of Pediatrics, Pramukhswami Medical College, Karamsad
Chairman, Research Group, Charutar Arogya Mandal, Karamsad
National Joint Coordinator - Advanced IAP NNF NRP Program
Ex-Member, Governing Body, National Neonatology Forum, New Delhi
Ex-President - National Neonatology Forum Gujarat State Chapter
Department of Pediatrics, Pramukhswami Medical College, Karamsad, Anand, Gujarat.
On Sep 2018




Dr. Kalyani R

"Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research is at present a well-known Indian originated scientific journal which started with a humble beginning. I have been associated with this journal since many years. I appreciate the Editor, Dr. Hemant Jain, for his constant effort in bringing up this journal to the present status right from the scratch. The journal is multidisciplinary. It encourages in publishing the scientific articles from postgraduates and also the beginners who start their career. At the same time the journal also caters for the high quality articles from specialty and super-specialty researchers. Hence it provides a platform for the scientist and researchers to publish. The other aspect of it is, the readers get the information regarding the most recent developments in science which can be used for teaching, research, treating patients and to some extent take preventive measures against certain diseases. The journal is contributing immensely to the society at national and international level."



Dr Kalyani R
Professor and Head
Department of Pathology
Sri Devaraj Urs Medical College
Sri Devaraj Urs Academy of Higher Education and Research , Kolar, Karnataka
On Sep 2018




Dr. Saumya Navit

"As a peer-reviewed journal, the Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research provides an opportunity to researchers, scientists and budding professionals to explore the developments in the field of medicine and dentistry and their varied specialities, thus extending our view on biological diversities of living species in relation to medicine.
‘Knowledge is treasure of a wise man.’ The free access of this journal provides an immense scope of learning for the both the old and the young in field of medicine and dentistry as well. The multidisciplinary nature of the journal makes it a better platform to absorb all that is being researched and developed. The publication process is systematic and professional. Online submission, publication and peer reviewing makes it a user-friendly journal.
As an experienced dentist and an academician, I proudly recommend this journal to the dental fraternity as a good quality open access platform for rapid communication of their cutting-edge research progress and discovery.
I wish JCDR a great success and I hope that journal will soar higher with the passing time."



Dr Saumya Navit
Professor and Head
Department of Pediatric Dentistry
Saraswati Dental College
Lucknow
On Sep 2018




Dr. Arunava Biswas

"My sincere attachment with JCDR as an author as well as reviewer is a learning experience . Their systematic approach in publication of article in various categories is really praiseworthy.
Their prompt and timely response to review's query and the manner in which they have set the reviewing process helps in extracting the best possible scientific writings for publication.
It's a honour and pride to be a part of the JCDR team. My very best wishes to JCDR and hope it will sparkle up above the sky as a high indexed journal in near future."



Dr. Arunava Biswas
MD, DM (Clinical Pharmacology)
Assistant Professor
Department of Pharmacology
Calcutta National Medical College & Hospital , Kolkata




Dr. C.S. Ramesh Babu
" Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR) is a multi-specialty medical and dental journal publishing high quality research articles in almost all branches of medicine. The quality of printing of figures and tables is excellent and comparable to any International journal. An added advantage is nominal publication charges and monthly issue of the journal and more chances of an article being accepted for publication. Moreover being a multi-specialty journal an article concerning a particular specialty has a wider reach of readers of other related specialties also. As an author and reviewer for several years I find this Journal most suitable and highly recommend this Journal."
Best regards,
C.S. Ramesh Babu,
Associate Professor of Anatomy,
Muzaffarnagar Medical College,
Muzaffarnagar.
On Aug 2018




Dr. Arundhathi. S
"Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR) is a reputed peer reviewed journal and is constantly involved in publishing high quality research articles related to medicine. Its been a great pleasure to be associated with this esteemed journal as a reviewer and as an author for a couple of years. The editorial board consists of many dedicated and reputed experts as its members and they are doing an appreciable work in guiding budding researchers. JCDR is doing a commendable job in scientific research by promoting excellent quality research & review articles and case reports & series. The reviewers provide appropriate suggestions that improve the quality of articles. I strongly recommend my fraternity to encourage JCDR by contributing their valuable research work in this widely accepted, user friendly journal. I hope my collaboration with JCDR will continue for a long time".



Dr. Arundhathi. S
MBBS, MD (Pathology),
Sanjay Gandhi institute of trauma and orthopedics,
Bengaluru.
On Aug 2018




Dr. Mamta Gupta,
"It gives me great pleasure to be associated with JCDR, since last 2-3 years. Since then I have authored, co-authored and reviewed about 25 articles in JCDR. I thank JCDR for giving me an opportunity to improve my own skills as an author and a reviewer.
It 's a multispecialty journal, publishing high quality articles. It gives a platform to the authors to publish their research work which can be available for everyone across the globe to read. The best thing about JCDR is that the full articles of all medical specialties are available as pdf/html for reading free of cost or without institutional subscription, which is not there for other journals. For those who have problem in writing manuscript or do statistical work, JCDR comes for their rescue.
The journal has a monthly publication and the articles are published quite fast. In time compared to other journals. The on-line first publication is also a great advantage and facility to review one's own articles before going to print. The response to any query and permission if required, is quite fast; this is quite commendable. I have a very good experience about seeking quick permission for quoting a photograph (Fig.) from a JCDR article for my chapter authored in an E book. I never thought it would be so easy. No hassles.
Reviewing articles is no less a pain staking process and requires in depth perception, knowledge about the topic for review. It requires time and concentration, yet I enjoy doing it. The JCDR website especially for the reviewers is quite user friendly. My suggestions for improving the journal is, more strict review process, so that only high quality articles are published. I find a a good number of articles in Obst. Gynae, hence, a new journal for this specialty titled JCDR-OG can be started. May be a bimonthly or quarterly publication to begin with. Only selected articles should find a place in it.
An yearly reward for the best article authored can also incentivize the authors. Though the process of finding the best article will be not be very easy. I do not know how reviewing process can be improved. If an article is being reviewed by two reviewers, then opinion of one can be communicated to the other or the final opinion of the editor can be communicated to the reviewer if requested for. This will help one’s reviewing skills.
My best wishes to Dr. Hemant Jain and all the editorial staff of JCDR for their untiring efforts to bring out this journal. I strongly recommend medical fraternity to publish their valuable research work in this esteemed journal, JCDR".



Dr. Mamta Gupta
Consultant
(Ex HOD Obs &Gynae, Hindu Rao Hospital and associated NDMC Medical College, Delhi)
Aug 2018




Dr. Rajendra Kumar Ghritlaharey

"I wish to thank Dr. Hemant Jain, Editor-in-Chief Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR), for asking me to write up few words.
Writing is the representation of language in a textual medium i e; into the words and sentences on paper. Quality medical manuscript writing in particular, demands not only a high-quality research, but also requires accurate and concise communication of findings and conclusions, with adherence to particular journal guidelines. In medical field whether working in teaching, private, or in corporate institution, everyone wants to excel in his / her own field and get recognised by making manuscripts publication.


Authors are the souls of any journal, and deserve much respect. To publish a journal manuscripts are needed from authors. Authors have a great responsibility for producing facts of their work in terms of number and results truthfully and an individual honesty is expected from authors in this regards. Both ways its true "No authors-No manuscripts-No journals" and "No journals–No manuscripts–No authors". Reviewing a manuscript is also a very responsible and important task of any peer-reviewed journal and to be taken seriously. It needs knowledge on the subject, sincerity, honesty and determination. Although the process of reviewing a manuscript is a time consuming task butit is expected to give one's best remarks within the time frame of the journal.
Salient features of the JCDR: It is a biomedical, multidisciplinary (including all medical and dental specialities), e-journal, with wide scope and extensive author support. At the same time, a free text of manuscript is available in HTML and PDF format. There is fast growing authorship and readership with JCDR as this can be judged by the number of articles published in it i e; in Feb 2007 of its first issue, it contained 5 articles only, and now in its recent volume published in April 2011, it contained 67 manuscripts. This e-journal is fulfilling the commitments and objectives sincerely, (as stated by Editor-in-chief in his preface to first edition) i e; to encourage physicians through the internet, especially from the developing countries who witness a spectrum of disease and acquire a wealth of knowledge to publish their experiences to benefit the medical community in patients care. I also feel that many of us have work of substance, newer ideas, adequate clinical materials but poor in medical writing and hesitation to submit the work and need help. JCDR provides authors help in this regards.
Timely publication of journal: Publication of manuscripts and bringing out the issue in time is one of the positive aspects of JCDR and is possible with strong support team in terms of peer reviewers, proof reading, language check, computer operators, etc. This is one of the great reasons for authors to submit their work with JCDR. Another best part of JCDR is "Online first Publications" facilities available for the authors. This facility not only provides the prompt publications of the manuscripts but at the same time also early availability of the manuscripts for the readers.
Indexation and online availability: Indexation transforms the journal in some sense from its local ownership to the worldwide professional community and to the public.JCDR is indexed with Embase & EMbiology, Google Scholar, Index Copernicus, Chemical Abstracts Service, Journal seek Database, Indian Science Abstracts, to name few of them. Manuscriptspublished in JCDR are available on major search engines ie; google, yahoo, msn.
In the era of fast growing newer technologies, and in computer and internet friendly environment the manuscripts preparation, submission, review, revision, etc and all can be done and checked with a click from all corer of the world, at any time. Of course there is always a scope for improvement in every field and none is perfect. To progress, one needs to identify the areas of one's weakness and to strengthen them.
It is well said that "happy beginning is half done" and it fits perfectly with JCDR. It has grown considerably and I feel it has already grown up from its infancy to adolescence, achieving the status of standard online e-journal form Indian continent since its inception in Feb 2007. This had been made possible due to the efforts and the hard work put in it. The way the JCDR is improving with every new volume, with good quality original manuscripts, makes it a quality journal for readers. I must thank and congratulate Dr Hemant Jain, Editor-in-Chief JCDR and his team for their sincere efforts, dedication, and determination for making JCDR a fast growing journal.
Every one of us: authors, reviewers, editors, and publisher are responsible for enhancing the stature of the journal. I wish for a great success for JCDR."



Thanking you
With sincere regards
Dr. Rajendra Kumar Ghritlaharey, M.S., M. Ch., FAIS
Associate Professor,
Department of Paediatric Surgery, Gandhi Medical College & Associated
Kamla Nehru & Hamidia Hospitals Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh 462 001 (India)
E-mail: drrajendrak1@rediffmail.com
On May 11,2011




Dr. Shankar P.R.

"On looking back through my Gmail archives after being requested by the journal to write a short editorial about my experiences of publishing with the Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR), I came across an e-mail from Dr. Hemant Jain, Editor, in March 2007, which introduced the new electronic journal. The main features of the journal which were outlined in the e-mail were extensive author support, cash rewards, the peer review process, and other salient features of the journal.
Over a span of over four years, we (I and my colleagues) have published around 25 articles in the journal. In this editorial, I plan to briefly discuss my experiences of publishing with JCDR and the strengths of the journal and to finally address the areas for improvement.
My experiences of publishing with JCDR: Overall, my experiences of publishing withJCDR have been positive. The best point about the journal is that it responds to queries from the author. This may seem to be simple and not too much to ask for, but unfortunately, many journals in the subcontinent and from many developing countries do not respond or they respond with a long delay to the queries from the authors 1. The reasons could be many, including lack of optimal secretarial and other support. Another problem with many journals is the slowness of the review process. Editorial processing and peer review can take anywhere between a year to two years with some journals. Also, some journals do not keep the contributors informed about the progress of the review process. Due to the long review process, the articles can lose their relevance and topicality. A major benefit with JCDR is the timeliness and promptness of its response. In Dr Jain's e-mail which was sent to me in 2007, before the introduction of the Pre-publishing system, he had stated that he had received my submission and that he would get back to me within seven days and he did!
Most of the manuscripts are published within 3 to 4 months of their submission if they are found to be suitable after the review process. JCDR is published bimonthly and the accepted articles were usually published in the next issue. Recently, due to the increased volume of the submissions, the review process has become slower and it ?? Section can take from 4 to 6 months for the articles to be reviewed. The journal has an extensive author support system and it has recently introduced a paid expedited review process. The journal also mentions the average time for processing the manuscript under different submission systems - regular submission and expedited review.
Strengths of the journal: The journal has an online first facility in which the accepted manuscripts may be published on the website before being included in a regular issue of the journal. This cuts down the time between their acceptance and the publication. The journal is indexed in many databases, though not in PubMed. The editorial board should now take steps to index the journal in PubMed. The journal has a system of notifying readers through e-mail when a new issue is released. Also, the articles are available in both the HTML and the PDF formats. I especially like the new and colorful page format of the journal. Also, the access statistics of the articles are available. The prepublication and the manuscript tracking system are also helpful for the authors.
Areas for improvement: In certain cases, I felt that the peer review process of the manuscripts was not up to international standards and that it should be strengthened. Also, the number of manuscripts in an issue is high and it may be difficult for readers to go through all of them. The journal can consider tightening of the peer review process and increasing the quality standards for the acceptance of the manuscripts. I faced occasional problems with the online manuscript submission (Pre-publishing) system, which have to be addressed.
Overall, the publishing process with JCDR has been smooth, quick and relatively hassle free and I can recommend other authors to consider the journal as an outlet for their work."



Dr. P. Ravi Shankar
KIST Medical College, P.O. Box 14142, Kathmandu, Nepal.
E-mail: ravi.dr.shankar@gmail.com
On April 2011
Anuradha

Dear team JCDR, I would like to thank you for the very professional and polite service provided by everyone at JCDR. While i have been in the field of writing and editing for sometime, this has been my first attempt in publishing a scientific paper.Thank you for hand-holding me through the process.


Dr. Anuradha
E-mail: anuradha2nittur@gmail.com
On Jan 2020

Important Notice

Reviews
Year : 2024 | Month : May | Volume : 18 | Issue : 5 | Page : ZE05 - ZE10 Full Version

A Comprehensive Review of Synthesis, Properties and Applications of TiO2 and ZnO Nanoparticles


Published: May 1, 2024 | DOI: https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2024/69854.19399
Suja Joseph, Deepak Nallaswamy, Shanmugam Rajeshkumar, Pradeep Dathan, Leon Jose

1. Research Scholar, Department of Prosthodontics, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. 2. Professor, Department of Prosthodontics, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. 3. Professor, Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. 4. Research Scholar, Department of Prosthodontics, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. 5. M Tech Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

Correspondence Address :
Suja Joseph,
Professor and Head, Department of Prosthodontics, Travancore Dental College, NH Bypass Road, Mylapore, Thattamala P.O, Kollam-691020, Kerala, India.
E-mail: sjkt21@gmail.com

Abstract

Nanotechnology is an advancing field of science with the potential to improve the quality of life through its applications in the field of nanomedicine. It refers to the technology of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules and developing new materials with nanoscale dimensions. Nanoparticles (NPs) typically range in size from 1-100 nm. Nanoparticles play a major role in the prevention of infections, so they can be utilised as nanocarriers with antimicrobial therapeutic actions. This article is a literature review on different methods of synthesis, properties, and biomedical applications of Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) and Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles. Since nanoparticles can be biomodified by cost-effective methods, the use and applications of NPs will increase in the future. The unique properties of nanoparticles make them useful in various fields of science such as materials, engineering, electronics, food science, and biomedicine. Due to their advantages, nanotechnology has gained the attention of researchers, especially for its promising applications in the healthcare system for better diagnosis and treatment.

Keywords

Bioimaging, Green synthesis, Nanobiomedicine, Nanotechnology, Titanium dioxide, Zinc oxide

Nanomaterials have been defined as natural, man-made, or incidental materials that comprise particles as agglomerates or masses or in an unconstrained state where 50% or a higher number of the particles display one or more outer dimensions within the range of 1-100 nm (1). A nanoparticle is the most essential component in the manufacture of a nanostructure (2). According to the British Standards Institution, a nanoparticle exhibits and confines its diameter and all its fields in the nanoscale (3). The term ‘nano’ refers to the Greek prefix meaning very small or dwarf. Nanoscience is a conjunction of materials science, physics, and biology, which includes the synthesis of materials at atomic and molecular scales, whereas nanotechnology deals with the capacity to observe, quantify, assemble, control, and synthesise matter confined to the nanometer scale (4). They are also denoted as “zero-dimensional” nanomaterials (5). Nanotechnology is defined as the application of scientific knowledge to manipulate and control matter at the nanoscale (6). The International System of Units (SI) uses the term nanoparticle to designate a reduction factor of 109 times. It covers structures whose size is above molecular dimensions and below macroscopic ones (generally >1 nm and <100 nm) (7). The American physicist Richard Feynman, considered the father of nanotechnology, introduced the concept in 1959 during an annual meeting of the American Physical Society at the California Institute of Technology in his lecture titled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” He explained the method of synthesis by the manipulation of atoms, which became a roadmap for new development (4). The term nanotechnology was first defined by Norio Taniguchi of the Tokyo Science University at the international conference on industrial production in 1974 to describe the processing of materials with nanometer accuracy and the creation of nanosized particles (4). The present review describes the different methods of synthesis, properties, and biomedical applications of TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles.

Discussion

Nanoparticles can be classified based on the following criteria (8):

1) Origin: Natural and anthropogenic.

2) Size: Ranging from 1-10 nm, between 10-100 nm.

3) Chemical composition: Organic substances, inorganic materials, and elements of the living kingdom.

4) Dimensions of existence (7):

a) One-dimensional nanoparticles: The system includes thin films ranging from 1-100 nm or monolayers, which find their application in information storage systems, the production of fiber-optic systems, chemical and biological sensors, magneto-optic and optical devices.

b) Two-dimensional nanoparticles: Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) are carbon atoms existing in hexagonal networks, appearing as a layer of graphite rolled up into a cylinder ranging about 1 nm in diameter and 100 nm in length. They can be single-walled or multi-walled.

c) Three-dimensional nanoparticles:
i) Fullerenes (Carbon 60): Spherical cage-like structures with a large number of carbon atoms, containing C60. They exist like a hollow soccer ball made up of interconnected carbon hexagons and pentagons.
ii) Dendrimers: A novel category of controlled-structure polymers presenting dimensions ranging from 10 to 100 nm in diameter along with numerous functional groups on their surface.
iii) Quantum Dots (QDs): These are tiny devices that contain a single droplet of free electrons made up of colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals of 2 to 10 nm in diameter. Widely used QDs include Cadmium Telluride (CdTe), Cadmium Selenide (CdSe), Indium Phosphide (InP), and Indium Arsenide (InAs).

5) Based on carbon composition (9):

a) Organic nanoparticles: Include dendrimers, micelles, liposomes, and ferritin. They are non toxic, biodegradable, and exhibit sensitivity to electromagnetic and thermal radiation.

b) Inorganic nanoparticles: Particles that are not composed of carbon atoms constitute inorganic nanoparticles. They include metal and metal oxide-based nanoparticles.

i) Metal-based.
ii) For the synthesis of nanoparticles, commonly used metals are Cobalt (Co), Aluminium (Al), Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn), etc.
iii) Metal oxides based.

Commonly synthesised metal oxides include Cerium Oxide (CeO2), Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3), Iron Oxide (Fe2O3), Silicon Dioxide (SiO2), Magnetite (Fe3O4), Titanium Oxide (TiO2), Zinc Oxide (ZnO), etc.

c) Carbon-based: Nanoparticles made entirely of carbon atoms are referred to as carbon-based. They can be further categorised into graphene, Carbon Nanotubes (CNT), fullerenes, carbon nanofibres, carbon black, and occasionally activated carbon in nano size (9).

The major factors influencing nanoparticle synthesis include pressure, temperature, time, size and shape of the particle, pore size, and expenditure of preparation (10).

Approaches in the Production of Nanoparticles

There are various approaches for the production of nanoparticles:

1) Top-down approach: This approach comprises the breaking down of bulky larger particles into particles of the nano range by the process of attrition process, milling, and electro-explosion wire techniques. Although the process is less time-consuming, it entails more energy consumption and is used in laboratory experimentation [9,10]. Methods employed in the top-down approach include physical and chemical vapour deposition, electron beam lithography, ion implantation, as well as X-ray lithography [10,11].

2) Bottom-up approach: This includes the diminishment of constituent materials to the very atomic level with multiple supplementary procedures leading to the growth of nanostructures. The physical forces acting on the nanostructure are utilised to pool the particles into a larger one during the assembling procedures (9). The methodology focuses on the concept of molecular recognition or self-assembly, which refers to self-budding on more things of one’s own kind from themselves. Scientists prefer the bottom-up approach because of its benefit of accurate control of particle size causing decent optical, electronic, and other related properties (11).

Multiple methods employed in the bottom-up approach include hydrothermal synthesis, colloidal precipitation, sol-gel synthesis, organometallic, chemical route, and electrodeposition (10),(11).

Methods of synthesis of nanoparticles:

A. P Physical methods (10):

1. Mechanical method: In the mechanical ball milling method, various forms of mills used include planetary, rod, vibratory, and tumbler. The container comprises steel or carbide hard balls. Nanocrystalline Co, Ag-F, etc., are manufactured by means of this method. The balls-to-material ratio is generally kept at 2:1. Inert gas or air is used to fill the container, and it is rotated at a very high speed around the central axis. The materials are hard-pressed between the walls of the balls and the container. In the procedure known as the melt-mixing process, molten metal streams are mixed at high velocity with turbulence to form nanoparticles.

2. Pulse laser ablation: Inside a vacuum chamber, the target sample is placed onto which the high-pulsed beam of laser is focused, and plasma is generated, which is formerly transmuted into a colloidal solution of nanoparticles.

3. Pulsed wire discharge method: The most widely used method for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles. Pulsated current is utilised to vaporise a metal wire to yield vapour, which is later cooled by the presence of ambient gas to process nanoparticles.

4. Chemical vapour deposition: Upon the substrate surface, a thin film of gaseous reactant is deposited at around 300-1200°C. Here a chemical reaction happens between gas and the heated substrate and combining gas, producing a thin film of the product on the substrate surface. The pressure of application ranges from 100-105 Pa.

5. Laser pyrolysis: Synthesis of nanoparticles using a laser beam is known as laser pyrolysis. An intense laser beam is used to disintegrate the mixture of gases.

6. Ionised cluster beam deposition: The arrangement comprises a source of evaporation, a beam of electrons to ionise the clusters, a nozzle providing expansion facility for the material, an arrangement to accelerate the clusters, and a substrate for nanoparticle deposition, all components stored in a suitable vacuum chamber. Through the action of an electronic beam, ionised collections are obtained.


B) Chemical methods (10),(11):

1. Sol-gel Method: This method includes various steps of condensation, hydrolysis, and thermal decomposition of metal alkoxides. The newly formed stable solution is termed as a sol. Through the process of hydrolysis or condensation, the gel is produced with remarkable viscosity.

2. Sonochemical synthesis: Pd-CuO nanohybrids have been effectively synthesised by sonochemical fusion with copper salt in the presence of palladium and water. The commercially used source is either palladium salts or pure metallic palladium (Pd).

3. Co-precipitation method: The method involves rapid diffusion of polymer-solvent into a non solvent polymer phase by mixing the polymer solution at the end. The interfacial tension at these two phases can yield nanoparticles.

4. Inert gas condensation method: Metals are placed inside a chamber filled with neon, argon, or helium, and the metal is vaporised. The gases start to cool in the presence of liquid nitrogen and form nanoparticles of 2-100 nm.

5. Hydrothermal Synthesis: One of the most commonly used methods in which a chemical reaction is initiated at temperatures ranging from room temperature to extreme levels for the synthesis of nanoparticles.

C) Biological methods (10),(11):

1. Synthesis using microorganisms: It involves either extracellular biosynthesis or intracellular biosynthesis making use of microbes capable of separating metal ions. Pseudomonas stutzeri Ag 295 is often found in silver mines, capable of collecting silver inside or outside the cell walls.

2. Synthesis using plant extracts: For the manufacture of gold nanoparticles, leaves of the geranium herb (Pelargonium graveolens) have been used. 1 mL 1 mmol aqueous solution of silver nitrate is combined with 5 mL of the plant extract for the same.

3. Synthesis using algae: Algae extract is prepared in an aqueous solvent or an organic solvent by heating or boiling it for a defined period. Algae solution and molar solutions of ionic metallic complexes are commonly incubated, either with continuous stirring or without stirring, for a defined duration under controlled conditions.

Physicochemical properties of nanoparticles:

a) Mechanical properties: Nanoparticles of non metallic materials are fragile and do not possess remarkable mechanical properties like plasticity, toughness, ductility, or elastic properties, whereas organic nanomaterials are flexible materials. The superior properties of nanoparticles are attributed to the diverse interaction forces between the nanoparticles and the contacting surface. The significant ones are electrostatic force, capillary forces, hydration forces, and van der Waals forces comprising Keesom force, Debye force, and London force (12).

b) Thermal properties: When the size of the nanoparticles decreases, the surface area to volume ratio increases hyperbolically. This higher surface-to-volume ratio allows a greater number of electrons for the transfer of heat compared to larger sizes. The superior thermal properties also result from micro convection, which occurs as a result of the Brownian motion of particles (12).

c) Magnetic properties: One of the notable size-dependent phenomena exhibited by nanoparticles is superparamagnetism, which is displayed in the presence of a magnetic field.

d) Electronic and optical properties: Metallic and semiconductor nanoparticles display certain characteristic properties like photoluminescence emission, linear absorption, and nonlinear optical properties related to the Localised Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) effect and quantum confinement. Improved crystallinity and small size of biogenic nanoparticles render them superior features compared to chemical nanoparticles (12).

e) Catalytic properties: The application of nanoparticles, called nano-catalysis, is gaining more interest these days. When compared to bulk materials, nanoparticle catalysts show enhanced properties such as reactivity and selectivity (12).

Synthesis of titanium oxide nanoparticles: There are two methods of synthesising TiO2 NPs.

1) Sol-gel method (13),(14)

There are two methods of sol-gel preparation:

a) Alcohol-based method: Ti (OC2H5), Ti(OC2H7)4, and Ti(OC4H9)4 are the major metal oxide precursors of titanium oxide nanoparticles. The metal-oxide bond in these alkoxides becomes highly polar and reactive because of the high electronegativity difference between titanium and oxygen. Addition of water leads to simultaneous hydrolysis and condensation reactions producing a gel (13).

b) Aqueous-based process: Precipitation and peptisation are the two major steps in the aqueous-based sol-gel process in the production of these nanoparticles. When a base is added, the inorganic metal salt rapidly hydrolyses to a gelatinous precipitate. The excess electrolyte is then washed-off. The process of the direct breakdown of a substance into colloidal particle size by the addition of a peptising agent is called peptisation (13).

2) Hydrothermal method: One of the suitable synthetic approaches to titanium nanoparticle manufacture is the hydrothermal method because of its several advantages like low production cost, controllability of reaction conditions, appropriate crystallisation temperature, being environmentally friendly, and low energy consumption.

Pure TiO2 powder (Degussa P25, 98%) sized 25 nm, along with a crystalline structure of mixed anatase and Rutile (80:20), is used in this method. About 0.5g of titanium oxide powder is added to a 10M 40 mL NaOH aqueous solution, then stirred vigorously for half an hour. Later, this mixture can be transferred for hydrothermal treatment to a stainless steel autoclave lined with Teflon and kept at 200°C for 48 hours in a muffle furnace. Following the reaction, the white precipitate needs to be separated from the autoclave and cooled at room temperature, subsequently washed with 0.1 M HCl acid solution and deionised water. This process of acid wash should be continued until almost all the Na+ ions are removed. After removing sodium ions, the resultant white precipitate, after the centrifugation process, should be dried in an oven at 60°C and then calcined at 250°C for two hours (15).

Properties of TiO2 nanoparticles: TiO2 nanoparticles are well known for their chemically inactive nature, non toxicity, low cost, high refractive index, excellent antibacterial effects, corrosion resistance, and impressive microhardness (16). They have impressive wear resistance, lightness, high strength, mechanical resistance, and electrical conductivity, low thermal diffusivity, and conductivity. They are white in colour and ductile in their pure form, so they can be readily customised to the required form and type (1). Considering the non toxicity, the American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the incorporation of TiO2 for use in drugs, human food, cosmetics, and food contact materials (1). (Table/Fig 1) lists the medical applications of TiO2 nanoparticles (17),(18),(19). (Table/Fig 2) summarises the dental applications of TiO2 nanoparticles (16),(17),(20),(21),(22),(23),(24),(25). Disadvantages are reported with titanium nanoparticles, like reduced interaction with surrounding tissue and bioactivity, which can be overcome by surface coating of this metal with biocompatible compounds (17),(25).

Synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: The synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles can be categorised into conventional (physical, chemical, and biological methods) and non conventional (reactor-based) methods (26).

The synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles can be categorised as follows:

1. Conventional

a. Physical methods: Physical methods comprise arc plasma, thermal evaporation, physical vapour deposition, ultrasonic irradiation, and laser ablation.

• Arc plasma method: The most common method to synthesise nanoparticles is an electric arc discharge method using Zinc rod, dry air, and a carbon rod as the cathode.
• Thermal evaporation: Zinc oxide powder is mixed with graphite, a reducing agent, at a temperature of 1000-1100°C to produce ZnO nanostructures.
• Physical vapour deposition: ZnO nanowires are fabricated at a low temperature of 450°C, with an increase in diameter as the temperature rises.
• Ultrasonic evaporation: It is a natural method of fabricating nanoparticles in a solution phase operation without changing the character of the particles.
• Laser ablation: An effective method for fabricating nanoparticles using all types of materials by adjusting parameters of the laser such as duration, wavelength, temperature, etc.

b. Chemical methods: Chemical methods employ the precipitation method, hydrothermal method, and chemical vapour deposition technique (26),(27),(28).

• Precipitation method: A precursor solution of Zinc salt, like Zinc nitrate, is treated with a reagent, such as acid or base, under high temperature and pressure to form nanoparticles.
• Hydrothermal method: An aqueous solution of precursor chemicals is treated at high temperature and pressure to form nanoparticles.
• Chemical vapour deposition method: A transport agent, like graphite, is added to zinc and heated at high temperature, then cooled to form nanoparticles.

The solid-phase synthesis techniques involve mechano-chemical and mechanical ball milling methods. The liquid-phase techniques comprise laser ablation, exploding wire, solution reduction, and decomposition processes.

Gas phase processes include gas evaporation and spark discharge processes (29).

c. Biological methods: Biological methods are predominantly an eco-friendly approach, which utilise biochemical and biotechnology methods and extraction from plants, as well as animals (26),(27),(29).

Green synthesis of ZnO NPs is a simple extraction technique employed after cleaning appropriate plant parts like leaves, stem, fruits, flowers, roots, peels, etc., with water. Commonly involved plants are P hysterophorus, Solanum nigrum, Purnus domestica, etc., which are subjected to elution, filtration, and separation.

The resultant extract is either dried or used to react with a zinc precursor under diverse conditions of pH and temperature. The phytochemicals used include numerous bio-active compounds like polyphenols, saponins, and flavonoids, which chelate with the metal ion and also stabilise the NPs. The underlying mechanism in the production of ZnO NPs is the simultaneous reduction and oxidation of cationic zinc ion by the phytochemicals present in the extracts. Upon completing the reaction, the product is exposed to an annealing process to obtain ZnO NPs. The ZnO NPs produced by means of plant extract show higher photocatalytic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties compared to the NPs synthesised by fungi, bacteria, algae, and yeast (27),(30).

The common sources of microbes used in the production of zinc oxide nanoparticles are Aeromonas hydrophila, Aspergillus aeneus, Pichia kudriavzevi, etc. The procedure involves selecting microbes and providing optimal conditions for cell growth. ZnO NPs are thoroughly washed with distilled water and ethanol, subsequently dried at 60°C overnight to obtain a white powder of ZnO NPs (29),(31).

2. Non conventional (reactor-based) methods: Microfluidic reactor-based method: It is a simple method to synthesise materials on the benchtop. Compared to the conventional method, this method utilises fewer chemicals and causes less damage to the environment and health (26),(27).

Properties of ZnO NPs: The method of preparation and the morphology determine the physical and chemical properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles (32). Zinc oxide nanoparticles appear as a water-insoluble white powder (30). The distinctive physical and chemical properties include a high electrochemical coupling coefficient, remarkable chemical stability, paramagnetic characteristics, extensive radiation absorption capability, and exceptional photostability.

The absence of a center of symmetry in wurtzite, along with high electromechanical coupling, results in strong pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties, making it applicable for piezoelectric sensors and mechanical actuators (27),(29). The energy band of 3.37 eV and bonding energy of 60 meV render it remarkable chemical, electrical, and thermal stability. Because of its acceptable optical, electrical, and photocatalytic properties, zinc oxide nanoparticles are applied in solar cells, photocatalysis, and chemical sensors. The low toxicity and high UV absorption enable its use in the biomedical field (32).

Summary of the medical applications of ZnO nanoparticles has been given in (Table/Fig 3) (28),(32),(33),(34),(35). The dental applications of ZnO nanoparticles has been summarised in (Table/Fig 4) (35),(36),(37),(38).

Research in the field of nanotechnology enables us to synthesise new materials by direct control of matter at the nanoscale. Good control over the synthetic parameters will definitely help in manipulating the physicochemical properties of ZnO and TiO2 NPs, thus utilising them in various branches of science such as material science, engineering, biology, biomedicine, and dentistry.

Conclusion

The TiO2 and ZnO NPs exhibit most of the properties displayed by an ideal oral biomaterial; hence, they are employed as antimicrobial agents, prosthetic material, and in various biomedical fields. Nanoparticles play a vital role in modern medicine, from diagnosis to treatment planning. Biomedical applications of these nanoparticles have gained more interest among researchers and motivated them to do more research in this emerging frontier.

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DOI and Others

DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2024/69854.19399

Date of Submission: Jan 30, 2024
Date of Peer Review: Feb 20, 2024
Date of Acceptance: Apr 10, 2024
Date of Publishing: May 01, 2024

AUTHOR DECLARATION:
• Financial or Other Competing Interests: None
• Was Ethics Committee Approval obtained for this study? Yes
• Was informed consent obtained from the subjects involved in the study? Yes
• For any images presented appropriate consent has been obtained from the subjects. NA

PLAGIARISM CHECKING METHODS:
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EMENDATIONS: 6

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